Spiritual Alternative # 6: Mahamudra Buddhism

The central meditation tradition of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism is Mahamudra, which is also common to the Sakya and Geluk schools, but not the Nyingma.  Its characteristic or distinguishing practice is deity yoga, or the practice of visualizing oneself as a deity of one’s choice (or, more accurately, that one’s guru considers appropriate) in order to undermine one’s ordinary sense of separate individuality, and in order to transcend ordinary awareness and realize one’s intrinsic buddhahood (which exists at least in potential form in all sentient beings).  There are two stages of deity yoga, otherwise known as anuttara yoga tantra or highest yoga tantra.  The first is the generation stage, where one begins visualizing oneself as a deity (and engages in multiple yogic practices).  The latter is the completion stage, where one fully realizes oneself as a deity, and where one realizes the clear light of the void or mind of clear light, which is (at least the initial) realization of the wisdom and awakening of a buddha. 

There are six stages or yanas that precede anuttara yoga tantra in the Mahamudra, starting with the yanas of the shravaka (“hearer,” i.e. one who hears the teachings of the historical Buddha, then puts them into practice and becomes and arhat, or one who comes to awakening and is not thereafter reborn according to the Theravada) and the pratyeka (a solitary practitioner who achieves the insight of a buddha, but does not teach it to others).  At these stages, the adept practices mindfulness and concentration meditation, which are the principal forms of meditation in the Theravada tradition today, and in all “Southern” schools of Buddhism historically.  Next comes the Mahayana or Bodhisattvayana, the Vehicle of the Bodhisattva, or the vehicle of the one who vows to become awakened out of compassion for all sentient beings.  The basis of this is bodhicitta, the mind of awakening, which includes both the sincere vow to become awakened for the benefit of all sentient beings, as well as a profound realization of the meaning of shunyata or emptiness (explained below).  After this come the three “lower” tantric vehicles, kriya, charya, and yoga tantra.  At these stages, the adept performs various rituals and purificatory practices, and is initiated by a qualified guru into the tantric tradition.  Meditation on and devotion to various deities, the practice of reciting mantras, the use of ritualized hand gestures (mudras), and the ritualized use of depictions of the external and internal cosmos (mandalas) are common at these stages.

Mahamudra Buddhists also strive to recognize the clear light of the void or mind of clear light in the intermediate state that Tibetan Buddhists believe exists between death and the next rebirth, and in dreams.  In these states, the physical body gives way to the subtle or astral body, and this body is not solid like the ordinary physical body.  One who is trained properly can recognize the Buddha-Nature upon leaving the physical body, whether in sleep or just after death, and can either prevent further rebirths for themselves or choose their next rebirth to benefit sentient beings caught in samsara.  Beings who are not properly trained, and not prepared for death, will find themselves gravitating toward a particular mode of existence based on their past actions (i.e., they will continue to be subject to the law of karma and rebirth in the six realms of existence: that of the gods or angels, that of demigods, that of humans, that of animals, that of ghosts, and that of hell-dwellers). 

Like Dzogchen, the Mahamudra approach is complex, with multiple stages of realization, elaborate rituals, and a heavy focus on secrecy (at least prior to the twentieth century).  It is very sophisticated, being based (at least ultimately) on a careful experiential examination of the nature of consciousness (insofar as something as seemingly non-interchangeable between minds as interior experiences of consciousness can be examined “carefully”), although as usual with traditionalist organizations like the Sakya, Kagyu and Geluk schools, the authoritarian nature of the guru-disciple relationship and of monasteries and meditation centers mean that abuses occur and the transformation of consciousness has not always been the primary goal of those claiming to follow the Mahamudra approach.  (This latter statement is, of course, true of all forms of organized religion, spirituality, philosophy, and consciousness-transformation.)  If one seeks to practice the Mahamudra, it is necessary to undertake practice with a guru, as initiation by and devotion to a qualified guru is one of the most important components of all tantric traditions.  However, in choosing a guru, one should be very cautious, ensuring that one is well-acquainted not just with the outer behavior of one’s potential guru(s), but what is really in their hearts.  It is too easy for these relationships to become abusive to justify any other approach.  Be that as it may, the Mahamudra is a profound approach to the transformation of consciousness, and it can lead to the same dazzling awareness of (or rather, awareness as) one’s intrinsic buddhahood, as Zen and Dzogchen.    

Buddhists in the celibate Geluk lineage, which is the only celibate lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, and is the lineage headed by the Dalai Lama, consider the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist scholasticism, specifically its Prasangika branch, to be the most profound philosophy of Buddhism.  The Madhyamaka will be discussed in greater detail in the section devoted to it, but the basic idea of it is that all phenomena, or all components of the world, as well as all transformations of those phenomena or components of the world, are empty of self-existence, or own-being, or intrinsic existence.  In other words, because they are produced by various causes and conditions, and because they themselves serve as causes and conditions of other phenomena, they cannot be said to possess a permanent underlying essence or a persistent basis of identity.  Phenomena are experienced, and can be said to exist in a relative sense because they are experienced, but if one analyzes phenomena, it is clear that they are always changing, never the same from moment to moment.  In the practice of Geluk Buddhism, which includes both the Mahamudra meditation and training in Madhyamaka-Prasangika philosophy, this emptiness (Skt. shunyata) is identified with the clear light of the void or mind of clear light, which is thus considered ultimately no different than phenomena themselves.  However, for a being caught up in samsara, phenomena appear real, and cause future rebirths, even if these rebirths are seen to be like the fleeting images of dreams to the awakened mind. 

Tibetan Buddhists, like most tantric practitioners and many other practitioners of traditions with origins in South Asia, use meditation and similar practices to cultivate magical and paranormal powers called siddhis that yield benefits to oneself and others in this lifetime.  One who attains such powers is known as a siddha.  The use of magic and paranormal powers has historically been central to the practice of Tibetan Buddhism, of both the popular and monastic varieties.     

Spiritual Alternative # 5: Dzogchen Buddhism

This is one of the major meditation traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, and is affiliated primarily with the Nyingma school, though it is also the primary approach of the heterodox Bon tradition, which combines Buddhist elements with an indigenous pre-Buddhist form of Tibetan spirituality, and is also used in the Kagyu tradition (along with Mahamudra).  It is a Mahayana and Vajrayana (or tantric) tradition. 

The basic premise of Dzogchen (or “The Great Perfection”), which is common to all Mahayana traditions, is that all sentient beings are always already enlightened buddhas and simply need to recognize it.  Dzogchen is premised on the belief that all sentient beings have the mind of clear light or intrinsic awareness, and this is the true nature of every sentient being, i.e. the buddha-nature of every sentient being.  The mind of clear light or intrinsic awareness is really none other than the awareness which each and every sentient being has right now, in the present moment.  Dzogchen’s aim is to recognize that one already abides in or as this intrinsic awareness, and that this occurs effortlessly.  This recognition is not even a form of meditation according to many Dzogchen masters. 

All objects of consciousness arise within the mind of clear light or intrinsic awareness, which reflects all things that arise within it but does not become caught up in them.  Samsara and nirvana, or the cycle of endless death and rebirth and release from this cycle, which are set in opposition to each other in pre-Mahayana Buddhist traditions, both arise within the mind of clear light or intrinsic awareness.  The mind of clear light perceives both, and both are in fact manifestations of the mind of clear light.  Every sentient being has this intrinsic awareness and simply needs to recognize it to manifest his or her basic buddhahood.  It is not an underlying unity like the Brahman of the Advaita Vedantins or the One of the Neoplatonists.  Rather, it is non-dual, which is to say, beyond all dualities and dualistic notions, including any notion of the One as opposed to the many or Brahman as opposed to Maya, whether from a relative or an absolute perspective.

Although the above is Dzogchen’s basic premise, and in theory it is permissible simply to rest in one’s true nature, the mind of clear light, which is one’s inherent buddhahood, there are eight other “vehicles” (Skt. yanas) besides the ninth and highest vehicle, Dzogchen (Skt. Atiyoga), that one can use to achieve the progressive realizations of wisdom and awakening according to the Nyingma tradition.  In fact, the Nyingma holds that it is best to first practice the lower eight vehicles, ideally in order, before being introduced to the “effortless” ninth vehicle of Dzogchen itself. 

The first three vehicles are non-tantric, with the third being the Mahayana proper, and the first two consisting of the vehicle of those who come to know the Buddha’s teaching by hearing or reading about it (known as the Shravakayana, which includes the Theravada), and the vehicle of solitary buddhas (Pratyekayana).  In these two stages, the adept practices mindfulness and concentration meditation, which will be discussed in greater detail in the section on the Theravada. 

In the third vehicle, the Mahayana, the adept cultivates the bodhisattva vow and begins the journey to full buddhahood by going through the ten stages (or bhumis) of the bodhisattva path.  The bodhisattva path and bodhisattva ideal is the defining feature of the Mahayana, of which all extant Tibetan traditions are part (note that some schools of Tibetan Buddhism add several more bhumis to the basic list of ten). 

The next three vehicles are the “outer tantric” vehicles.  Here, the adept uses mantras, mudras, the contemplation of mandalas, ritual empowerment by gurus (instruction by a guru is also necessary in the vehicle of Dzogchen, according to most Nyingma masters), dream yoga, etc. 

The next two vehicles are “inner tantric” vehicles, and consist of contemplating oneself as a deity, of visualizing oneself as a deity, ultimately seeing the contingency of one’s own sense of identity and all phenomena.  The highest vehicle, again, is Dzogchen itself.

Dzogchen, like other Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, accepts the traditional Buddhist cosmology of six realms of rebirth for beings within samsara, who are reborn again and again until they become awakened to their true or inherent nature as buddhas.  While all of this occurs within the pure effortless awareness of the mind of clear light or intrinsic awareness, it still seems like concrete reality to sentient beings trapped in samsara because they ignorantly identify with the objects of this awareness rather than recognizing their true nature as this awareness itself.  Thus, it is still important for such beings to engage in wholesome or moral behavior (in order to obtain a more favorable rebirth), and it is important for them to practice Buddhism in order to realize their true nature, eliminate ignorance, and develop the perfections of a bodhisattva. 

Dzogchen has a very sophisticated and detailed account of the process of awakening, and some of its teachings are simple and straightforward, while others are complicated and nuanced.  The tantric practices of the Nyingma are quite complex and difficult, but the basic practice of Dzogchen is simple in theory, though very few people actually recognize the mind of clear light or intrinsic awareness in practice.  After all, if it were really easy to do this, virtually anybody who heard and understood this teaching intellectually would become a fully awakened buddha very quickly, and would not simply be, like all other sentient beings, a buddha who has not yet realized his or her true nature. 

Needless to say, most people who hear Dzogchen teachings and understand them intellectually do not quickly become fully awakened buddhas, and Dzogchen is only fully useful for those who have already practiced extensively in at least some of the eight lower yanas.  However, it can be partially useful for everybody, since it is possible to recognize the mind of clear light or intrinsic awareness as the perceiver or space of cognition behind any experience that one has at any time.  But again, there are few who can recognize it as such all the time or even most of the time (or, heck, even some of the time). 

To my mind, Dzogchen and the traditions in which it is found are full of contradictions.  They teach that the supreme goal is to effortlessly abide in the awareness one already has, because this is none other than the awareness of a buddha, but also feature extraordinarily complicated paths of multiple stages of spiritual development chock-full of elaborate rituals and hierarchical esoterism.  I know I will be accused of misunderstanding Dzogchen, as well as the Nyingma, Kagyu, and heterodox Bon traditions, but I honestly do not see any way for these conflicting facets of these traditions to be reconciled. 

I also do not believe in the law of karma or the multiple realms of rebirth, either literally or figuratively, since I have yet to encounter convincing evidence for the existence of either.  (There is some evidence for rebirth, and some evidence for post-mortem existence, but nothing that convinces me that either is a reality.  Furthermore, none of these accounts provide evidence for the law of karma, or the view that the morality or immorality of one’s past and present actions determine the circumstances of one’s future births, and that the morality or immorality of one’s past actions have determined one’s present circumstances.)  

Interlude # 2: Introduction to the Tantric Traditions

Tantric traditions are based on a class of South Asian ritual and meditation manuals known as tantras.  The basic idea of all tantric traditions, whether they are Buddhist, Hindu, or Jain, is to use ordinary states of mind, specifically states of desire, in the process of becoming awakened.  In most Buddhist and Hindu traditions, and in both major Jain monastic traditions, the renunciation of the ordinary life of desire is considered a prerequisite for committing oneself to the path of awakening or liberation.  However, the tantric traditions seek to use desire on the path of awakening rather than renounce it altogether.

This does not mean that the tantric traditions encourage self-indulgence.  Rather, what they really do, at least in theory, is to encourage people to transcend base desires using the wisdom at the heart of every one of them.   The wisdom of the Buddha and the Buddha-Nature, or in the tantric Hindu context, of Shiva-Shakti and one’s true identity as Shiva-Shakti, exist in all situations, including those involving sensual desire, and can be realized in all situations, including those involving sensual desire.  It is this insight that the tantric traditions seek to utilize in the pursuit of wisdom through desire. 

Other major practices of the tantric traditions include secret rituals and initiation ceremonies, complete dedication to one’s guru as equivalent or identical to a deity or a buddha (depending on the tradition, though Tibetan Buddhism includes both), elaborate visualization practices (of deities and other important beings), the use of mandalas (or maps of the cosmos) and yantras ( or geometric designs representing deities and concepts), the use of mudras (or stylized hand gestures – though this word also refers to “parched grain,” one of the five taboo substances discussed below), and the use of mantras (best translated as “sacred phrases”).

Ritualized sex is part of the tantric traditions of Buddhism and Hinduism, at least in theory (and often in practice as well), but it is not the central practice of any form of tantrism, whether Buddhist or Hindu (and it is absent in Jainism, the tantric tradition of which is of the extreme “right hand” variety).  However, sexual intercourse is one of the five things that were traditionally taboo for monks and mendicants to do in South Asian society, along with consuming alcohol, eating meat, eating fish, and eating parched grain, all of which tantric practitioners did and still do either literally or symbolically.  These five taboos are known as Panchamakara, or the “Five M’s” – because they all begin with that letter in Sanskrit.  Antinomian behavior, which consists of engaging in the “Five M’s” as well as other taboo activities, is part of many tantric traditions.  It is very prominent in the Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as in the Kapalika and non-tantric Pashupata traditions of Shaivism and the tantric Kalikula traditions of Shaktism, all of which can safely be categorized as “left-hand” forms of tantrism (with the Pashupata simply being a form of “left-hand” cremation-ground asceticism rather than left-hand tantrism). 

However, other tantric traditions, such as the Geluk sect of Tibetan Buddhism headed by the Dalai Lama, the popular Shaiva Siddhanta tradition of Southern India, the householder tradition of monistic Shaivism that is usually known as “Kashmir Shaivism” (and which is based on Kapalika or “Cremation-Ground” Shaivism, but no longer incorporates that element of the Shaiva tradition in practice), and the Srikula traditions of Shaktism, discourage antinomian behavior almost entirely (or even altogether), allowing it only for the most advanced practitioners, and even then only on rare occasions.  These “right hand” tantric traditions interpret the “Five M’s” symbolically, and often go out of their way to discourage antinomianism among their practitioners, especially their monastics and priests. 

Tantric practices are part of all the following traditions: Shingon Buddhism (which is the oldest school of tantric Buddhism, and is still popular in Japan); Tendai Buddhism (as a minor element of the tradition, and only in Japanese Tendai, not Chinese Tiantai); the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism – the Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Geluk (as well as the minor schools of Jonang and Kadampa); Bon, the heterodox tradition of Tibetan Buddhism that mixes tantric Buddhist elements and indigenous Tibetan elements; the Newar tradition of Buddhism in Nepal (which I will not cover in this series); Kapalika (or “Cremation Ground”) Shaivism; Kaula; Kashmir Shaivism, which is also known as Trika; Shaiva Siddhanta; Natha Yoga or Siddha Siddhanta; Shiva Advaita; Vira Shaivism or Lingayatism; Kalikula Shaktism; Srikula Shaktism; and some esoteric traditions of Jainism.  Some reform movements within Hinduism and Buddhism also have tantric overtones.  Aurobindo’s Integral Yoga has a metaphysic that is similar to Advaita Vedanta in some ways, but it is (at least in theory) more life-affirming and world-affirming (even though, by Western standards, it is still quite ascetic, as it encourages extreme moderation in most sensual activities as well as celibacy), and this element of it seems to derive from tantric traditions more than Advaita Vedanta.  The Ramakrishna Mission / Ramakrishna Math and its American branch, the Vedanta Society, while it is based principally on Advaita Vedanta, has its roots in a guru (Ramakrishna) who was originally, and while alive never ceased to be, a devotee of Kali, and a tantric adept of the right-hand variety (baseless claims by some psychoanalytically-inclined scholars about his mystical experiences being the result of repressed homosexuality and pedophiliac tendencies notwithstanding).